Coding the carved: the development of a coding system for inventorying stone-carved graves in Pakistan

Introduction

The practice of interring the dead in funerary structures comprising finely carved stone graves was a continual and expansive cultural trait of Baloch tribal communities in lower Sindh and Baluchistan from the thirteenth to nineteenth century, tentatively speaking (Dani 1982; Hasan 2001; Kalhoro 2014; Lashari 1996; Zajadacz-Hastenrath 2003). These structures are housed in graveyards that vary greatly in size, form strong affinities with the larger stone carving tradition prevailing in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Sindh and are akin to the funerary structures built in stone at the UNESCO world heritage site of Makli (Dani 1982; Lari and Lari 1997; Lashari 1996; Patel 2004). Baloch tribes settled in the mentioned areas are commonly referred to as jaablo (from mountains) tribes by the local people. There is a logic to this popular nomenclature as jabal means ‘mountain’ in Sindhi and most of these tribes have resided near or within the ranges and later settled in the fertile plains of Sindh. There are still tribal clans living within these ranges, maintaining the funerary structures of their forefathers. There are some 200–300 such graveyard sites, as mentioned by Hasan (1996, xxi) in his book on the funerary culture there. The graveyards contain a wide variety of funerary structures that are discussed below.

There have been efforts in the past by local and international scholars to date, document and analyse these graveyards and to connect them to larger-scale cultural complexes; hence, scholarship relating to this heritage is not absent. The graveyards, for example, have been systematically analysed by Zajadacz-Hastenrath (2003, xix) using stylistic methods to date the graves. Lashari (1996) has detailed the characteristic features of the graves in detail and published the most comprehensive work to date, which provides the basis for the inventory headings and sub-headings presented here. Hasan (1996, 2001) has attempted to connect the graveyards to wider funerary traditions and has also defined their basic characteristic features. Recent works by Kalhoro (2009, 2014, 2017) based on extensive field surveys and their findings have linked the graveyards to tribal traditions. Despite these undertakings, systematic inventorying of the graves with a clear coding system is yet to be achieved.

Graveyards in perspective

Funerary structures and local nomenclature

The graveyards contain several types of structure: platforms; enclosures with a mihrab niche; pillared canopies with domes; and domed square chambers (Dani 1982; Hasan 2001; Junejo 2020; Lashari 1996). The most ubiquitous structure in these graveyards is the stone carved grave, standing alone, in pairs of two, three, four or more (Figure 1), within the enclosures, under the canopies and above the platforms. In Muslim burial practice a grave is primary, the rest of the ensemble is secondary, justifying the presence of a larger volume of stone carved graves. In the local language the carving is called chitsaali, a Sindhi word translating to pattern-making (from an interview with Gul Hassan Kalmatti). Carved graves are called shami, rumi or gharayoon (Kalhoro 2009, 46; Lashari 1996, 17); enclosures and platforms rank (Hasan 1996, 21; Lashari 1996, 12). Palyas and a range of terms (Kalhoro 2017, 1–32; Lashari 1996, 34–5) are used for memorial stones and mahyoon (Lashari 1996, 34) for stone towers and cairns that are rarely found. The most common and most debated term associated with these graveyards in general, and grave structures in particular, is chaukhandi. Some scholars associate it with graves themselves, while others maintain that it refers to a pillared canopy (Hasan 1996, 19–22; Kalhoro 2009, 46–7; Lashari 1996, 13–17).

Figure 1

Free-standing grave with base, main chamber and top or head stone visible, Malir Graveyard, Karachi

Development of codes for stone carved graves and grave platforms

The coding system presented here has been devised by the authors of this article. It forms the basis for the inventory template or Excel sheet grouped under several headings and sub-headings based on common characteristics for subsequent inventorying of the graveyards.

Each graveyard is assigned a unique code derived from its commonly known name and geographic location. In the pilot phase, three sites were coded as follows: Baloch graveyard in Karachi as BAL-KHI; Sondha in Thatta as SON-THT; and Pir-Patho in Thatta as PPA-THT. The coding method uses the first three letters of a single-word name (for example, BAL for Baloch), while composite names use a combination of the first letter of the first word and the first two letters of the second word (for example, PPA for Pir-Patho). The geographic identifier is added using standard city codes (for example, KHI for Karachi, THT for Thatta). This flexible system allows for multiple combinations to accommodate different naming conventions across graveyards. For inventory purposes, each graveyard must be thoroughly photo-documented, as done in the pilot study. After documentation, photographs are categorised based on structure type (see Table 1) and assigned a unique alpha-numeric code. This code consists of three parts:

1. structure type and number

2. graveyard location code

3. year of documentation.

Table 1

Funerary structure codes for inventory data mapping

Name and description	Structure code	Image
Pillared Canopy These structures have a dome on top, which is polygonal in geometry, and house multiple stone-carved graves underneath the canopy.	P4C (2) 4 indicates four columns/pillars and 2 is the number of graves underneath
Grave Enclosures (Raank) These are enclosure walls with an entrance, mihrab niche and graves within the enclosure.	GE (6) 6 indicates the number of graves housed inside the enclosure
Graves Platforms Also called raank, these are platform bases that house several graves on top and sometimes have grills marking the platform precinct.	GPl. (5) 5 indicates number of graves on top of the platform
Domed Square Pavilions The archetypical tomb type with polygonal varieties almost absent in tribal graveyards.	DSP
Stone Carved Graves The most prevalent structure on the graveyard sites. These are further categorized based on the characteristics of the graves.	SCG
Memorial Stones Mahyoon/grave towers, Sati and memorial stones mostly found in Tharparkar region.	MSt.
Other (if any)	Oth

Since multiple photographs of a single structure may be taken, a decimal extension is used to group them (for example, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and so on) where the integer represents the structure and the decimal indicates the image sequence. In addition, GPS coordinates for each structure must be recorded and included in the inventory to facilitate future geographic mapping of the graveyards. For example, decoding the photograph labelled SCG-1.4_BAL-KHI-2023 reveals the following (Figure 2):

1. SCG denotes the structure type: stone carved grave

2. 4 indicates structure number 1, photograph number 4

3. BAL-KHI refers to the Baloch graveyard in Karachi

4. 2023 is the year the photograph was taken.

Types of grave

For coding the grave types, as there are many of them, the headstones and the bases of the graves are used as indicators for classification, unless more complicated multi-tiered graves with brackets and pilarettes are present. Therefore, all graves are identified based on their uppermost parts (flat, keel or turban top) and lower parts (solid or stool/hollow type). The basic structure, as discussed earlier, is three-tiered with varying complexity; for example, a main chamber split into two or more spaces, a base that becomes higher and more elaborate and so on. Attention should be paid to whether the base of a grave is separate from a platform in a grave structure. Platforms describe a funerary structure somewhat different from free-standing stone carved graves and only specific grave types are elaborated on (Table 2). The main code for stone carved graves is taken from the structure code SCG, numbers 1, 2 and 3 onwards are used to indicate the top and letters A and B indicate solid and hollow bases respectively (Table 1).

Table 2

Types of grave and codes for inventory data mapping

Grave type and description	Grave code	Image
Basic These are mostly flat top basic two- to three-tiered structures with relatively shallow heights and minimal to zero carvings.	SCG1
Flat top These are three- to four-tiered flat-topped grave	SCG2
	Solid base A
	Hollow/stool base B SCG2_A means flat top solid base SCG2_B means flat top hollow base
Turban top These are three- to four-tiered with turban type headstone and either solid or hollow base	SCG3
	Solid base A
	Hollow/stool base B
Keel top Three-tiered with Keel shaped headstone and solid or hollow base	SCG4
	Solid base A
	Hollow/stool base B
Keel and turban top Three-tiered with both keel and turban top with solid or hollow base. Some samples from Sondha graveyard had these composite tops	SCG5
	Solid base A
	Hollow/stool base B
Complex or composite These are multi-tiered (high) graves with brackets and/or pilarettes with or without turban or keel top. Bracket can either identify a palanquin, catafalque or a bier, all signifying a death bed. Similarly, the idea of pilarettes is also understood as a charpoy having four feet (payas) that the pilarettes resemble. These types of graves indicate the higher status of the person buried. They are composites of the earlier structures with greater height and much more detailed carvings.	SCG6
	2_A Flat top solid base
	2_B Flat top hollow base
	3_A Turban top solid base
	3_B Turban top hollow base
	4_A Keel top solid base
	4_B Keel top hollow base
	5_A Keel and Turban top solid base
	5_B Keel and Turban top hollow base SCG6.4_A means composite grave with keel top and solid base
Other	SCG0

Figure 2

An example from the Baloch graveyard in Karachi: SCG-1.1–1.4_BAL-KHI-2023

Types of carved patterns or motifs

Carved patterns are a hallmark of stone carved graves and other structures in these graveyards and present an important and challenging inventory heading to code. Attention to detail has been paid while developing these codes in order to be as clear and comprehensive as possible. Within the main category of carved patterns, there are four major sub-categories: floral; figural; geometric; and unique. The ‘other’ category is also added here to cover all bases. The four sub-categories are further divided as per the information in the relevant literature and the site-data. The floral category is sub-divided into local/regional and arabesque/Islamic. Local/regional patterns include three special categories (lotus flower, sunflower and water lily) as these are the most pervasive floral patterns, while the rest form an ‘other’ category. Floral motifs, of sunflower and lotus, are found as rosettes and/or band/vine design, and coded keeping these denominations in mind, a process that can be repeated for any other pattern, regional or Islamic. Arabesque flower motifs or vines categorically different from local designs, are almost absent from the carving repository. They are, however, given a separate code just in case they appear as the sample size expands. The remaining four categories are also divided into denominations and coded accordingly. Floral and geometric patterns have local/regional and arabesque/Islamic as the main distinctions, while figural carvings have animal and human categories, with a category for unique depictions, including jewellery and weaponry. The ‘other’ category allows for the addition of newly observed motifs (Table 3).

Table 3

Types of pattern and codes for inventory data mapping

Carved pattern type	Pattern code	Image
Floral patterns Floral bands and rosettes both local/regional and arabesque are included in the floral category; further denominations are added as per need.	P1
	A for local/regional
	1a – Lotus flower
	1b – Lotus band/vine
	2a – Sunflower
	2b – Sunflower band/vine
	3 – Water lilies
	0 – Other
	B for Arabesque/Islamic
	P1_ A1b Is a floral pattern that is the regional lotus vine
Figural patterns Figural patterns include horse riders, animal motifs, human warriors and so on. Birds and horses are mostly found hence are given a separate category.	P2
	A – Animal
	1 – Horses
	2 – Birds
	0 – Other
	B – Human
	P2_A2 Is figural animal pattern of bird category
Geometric patterns Geometric patterns either Islamic or local are found in grid or filler variety with ‘other’ added for borders and scrolls, among others. Lance motif that is of local variety is very common and hence given a separate category. Goemetric patterns are also found in jali or lattice work.	P3
	A – local/regional
	1 – Grid
	2 – Filler
	3 – Lance
	0 – Other
	B – Arabesque/Islamic
	1 Grid
	2 Filler
	0 Other
	P3_B1 Is Islamic geometric grid pattern
Unique Patterns These include jewellery and weaponry mostly. Other motifs such as utility items are also rarely found. Here, there is no distinction between local and arabesque because these motifs are inherently local. Within jewellery, necklaces, bangles, earrings and rings are found; and weaponry mostly display bow and arrow and sword and shield, mostly together.	P4
	A – Jewellery
	1 – Necklace
	2 – Bangles
	3 – Earrings
	4 – Rings
	0 – Other
	B – Weapons
	1 – Sword and/or shield
	2 – Bow and arrow
	0 – Other
	C – Other
	P4_A1 Is unique pattern of necklace from jewellery variety
Other Any other carved pattern not included in the above categories can be added in this category.	P0

Types of elements

Elements are features other than carved patterns that are repeated on multiple graves acting as a form of trademark. Elements mostly have architectural connotations and can appear as miniatures of full-scale architectural edifices on the graves. Like headstones, niches, roundels, rosettes, pilarettes and so on, this heading is also important as it documents features of other kinds; for example, a pillared canopy or an enclosure. Therefore, this heading includes both full-scale and miniature-scale elements with a different alpha-numeric code assigned to each element (Table 4).

Table 4

Types of element and codes for inventory data mapping

Element	Element Code	Image
Headstone They are one of the main characteristic markers for identifying graves as mentioned in Table 2. Although indicated in the grave type, headstone is given a separate category in the elements because of its importance.	E1
	A – Flat top
	B – Turban top
	C – Keel top
	D – Turban and keel top
	E – Stela
	0 – Other
	E1_C is headstone with keel top
Pilarettes These are miniature columns that accentuate the corner of the platforms, mihrab niches and grave chambers.	E2
Arch and rosette (niche) This element has arched niche with a rosette in the centre and it appears widely on the graves in variety of forms. Further denominations can be added once a larger sample is collected	E3
Niches (miniature) These are separate from the niches with a rosette in the centre. The miniature niches with myriad representation are coupled with local grid patterns. They mostly appear in pairs of two and three.	E4
Quarter-centre rosette This is added here and not in patterns because it is an ensemble and a recurring element. Although the element has variety, the trademark feature remains a full-blown rosette in the centre of a square and quarter rosettes in the four corners	E5
Brackets As discussed in Table 2 for complex graves bracket-like elements are added representing a palanquin, catafalque or a bier.	E6
Lattice work Lattice work mostly appear on complex grave types and acts as precinct markers for the platforms.	E7
Kalasa finial Kalasa finials appear on the pillared canopies as a termination for the dome of the canopy.	E8
Battlement/crenelation Battlement details appear both on the enclosure types and pillared canopies. In canopies they act as parapet detail while on enclosures they mark the termination of the wall surface.	E9
Drip stone projection These are part of the pillared canopies and have an inclined surface to let the water run off.	E10
Capital Four (five or six) bracketed capitals that identify the column or pillar type indicate local leanings since they were found in Gujarat and also appear at Makli. Muqarnas capitals that appear at Makli during Arghun and later periods can be another variation added to make the inventory comprehensive. ‘Other’ is added to accommodate further variations as they appear.	E11
	Four bracketed – A
	Muqarnas – B
	Other – 0
	E11_B means a muqarnas capital
Column Full-scale column/shaft in the pillared canopies. These shafts can either be segmented or square. At present any other type of shaft is not observed on the sites; however, the ‘other’ denominator is added to accommodate further variations.	E12
	Round or Segmented shaft – A
	Square shaft – B
	Other – 0
	E12_A is a round segmented shaft in a column
Pendant A pendant hangs like a chandelier at the soffit of the dome adorning the apex. Above this pendant is a finial on the outer surface of the dome.	E13
Corbelling Domes in the graveyards mostly use a corbelling structure where the recesses are beautifully carved. This indicates local inclination and expertise of the masons.	E14
Portal A well-defined entrance is a marker of enclosure type structures. This portal contains carved lintels, architrave, threshold and are mostly higher than the surrounding walls. The enclosure sometimes has a plinth with steps and foyer in front of it.	E15
Moonstone It is a round or half circle step placed at a threshold of an enclosure or domed square pavilion. These steps are either left unadorned or carved and come from local Buddhist sacred tradition.	E16
Jharokas or miniature oriels The oriels, called jharokas locally, do not appear on graves but are present in enclosures and domed square pavilions. They have been added here for the inventory to be comprehensive. These are miniature oriels acting as a design feature.	E17
Mihrabs (full scale) These are full-scale mihrab niches given a separate element category to differentiate from miniature niches that appear on graves and structures. These appear mostly in enclosure types but sometimes a mihrab wall with a full-scale niche was added to the pillared canopy ensemble.	E18
Other	E0

Carving technique

Categorising carving techniques comprises three principal headings. The first is related to technique; the second to craftmanship; and the third to the status of the carving. This last heading is simpler, but it is important as it can give information to scholars about the status of the deceased. If a grave or another structure, for example, has dense and fine carving that is complete, the assumption is that it must belong to an important and wealthy person who could afford a better sculptor for their grave. A finely carved grave can also indicate a celebrated tribal hero or a warrior who brought pride to the clan. Similarly, a partially complete or crude carving might reflect a person from a comparatively humble background (Table 5).

Table 5

Types of carving technique and codes for inventory data mapping

Name	Carving technique code	Image
Hight relief Patterns and elements are carved with high relief carving.	CT1
Low relief Patterns and elements are carved with low relief carving.	CT2
Incisions Patterns and elements are carved by making depressions or incisions in the stone slab.	CT3
Lattice work Lattice work is different from all the other carving techniques since it punctures the stone to produce a screen. Although not a common practice, lattice work is used in grave platforms as precinct markers.	CT4
Dense More close and crowded patterns reflect a dense carving method. These are mostly fine and precise in execution.	CT5
Light This is more spread out over the surface of the stone and can be crudely done; however, all light carvings are not crude. Hence a separate category is created here.	CT6
Crude The carving is less refined, carving patters are incoherent and workmanship appears crude.	CT7
Finished/fine This indicates the refinement of the carving technique and finesse of the craft rather than the status of the carving on the structure.	CT8
Complete This indicates that the work is completed. There are rare cases of complete work in the graveyards sampled in the pilot. This is about the carving and not the structure or elements of the graves.	CT9
Incomplete (with chisel marks) There are instances where incomplete work is clearly visible due to the chisel marks left by the carvers or roundels left uncarved. This should be indicated in the inventory.	CT10

Evidence for literacy

Epigraphic records and/or calligraphy can be found on Arabic graves, including calligraphy, Persian, Sindhi and Devanagari, among other scripts. In the sampled graveyards, writing is rarely found and the examples identified are relatively crude compared to those recorded at the funerary heritage site of Makli, which displays a refined culture of literacy (Lashari 2018). The addition of all local scripts to the inventory should result in a comprehensive archive, to enable comparison with, for example, the writing in Devanagari script observed in the memorial stones of the Tharparkar and Nagarparkar regions in Sindh (Kalhoro 2017) (Table 6).

Table 6

Types of writing and codes for inventory data mapping

Name	Writing code	Image
Arabic	Wrt 1
Persian	Wrt2
Sindhi	Wrt3
Devanagari	Wrt4
Other	Wrt0

Inventory documentation for stone carved graveyards: scope and limitations

Inventorying any heritage site has myriad applications and can be attempted at a variety of scales, from a single building to an entire neighbourhood, even to a city:

The inventory – the documenting of what is there – is fundamental to the development of a greater understanding, not only of the individual components of the built heritage, but also to grasp much wider historical, social and architectural context … the inventory is required for purposes of definition, interpretation, education, protection, conservation, planning, rehabilitation and heritage management. (Bold et al. 2009, 17–18)

Such a methodology benefits heritages from regions where archival data are unavailable, scarce or unorganised and dispersed. It also helps to establish legal frameworks for heritage protection where they are absent, to develop a world heritage dossier for sites and towns, to establish a methodology to ascribe heritage value to a building, precinct or a town, to conduct status monitoring of heritage sites and to analyse data on the macro-scale (Azmi et al. 2015; Naeem 2011; Shah 2015; Soomro 2024; Wan and Ahmad 2021). Inventory as a method for documentation where systematic documentation is either very recent or absent within a relaxed institutional framework has been advocated by many scholars (Azmi et al. 2015; Naeem 2011; Shah 2015; Soomro 2024; Wan and Ahmad 2021) and is therefore suited to the cultural heritage that forms the focus of this article.

The graves and graveyards have structures, elements and carved motifs that are specific and can be grouped together as inventory heads, as discussed above. The flexible and growing nature of inventory documentation makes it well suited for the kinds of heritage site considered here because, with an increase in sample size and data, the headings can be expanded without interfering with pre-existing categories (Bold et al. 2009, 13) to incorporate additional categories of observation. For example, the most common funerary structures at these sites laid out by stacking stone slabs, one on top of the other, are prone to vandalism, wear and loss. Anthropogenic activities in urban areas, as in the case of the Malir graveyard, Karachi; vandalism, as in the case of the Pir Patho graveyard, Thatta; or lack of maintenance and unchecked growth of wild flora, as at Lakho Pir, Thatta (Figure 3), provide examples that make a strong case for systematically documenting these sites for posterity.

Figure 3

Graveyard used as a thoroughfare, Malir Graveyard, Karachi, abandoned headstones scattered at Pir Patho graveyard and unchecked growth of flora in Lakho Pir graveyard, Thatta, respectively

The coding system developed here for the structures, patterns, elements and condition of stone carved graves and graves on platforms is extensive and aimed at documenting almost all features of a particular grave, grave platform or other structure. The provision of later expansion within every heading and respective sub-heading, facilitates exhaustive inventorying as fieldwork expands to other graveyards.

One major constraint is that in certain instances not all four sides of a monument can be photographed where individual graves are in close proximity. This leaves the option of documenting the aspects that are most visible. Accessibility to certain graves within a graveyard can also be restricted due to unchecked vegetation (Figure 3). In most cases, all four sides of a platform can be photo-documented. Architectural elements displaced from grave structures and dispersed around graveyards are difficult to interpret and are not included in the inventory (Figure 3), although headstones lying next to a grave are documented with the associated grave as part of the ensemble.

Graves within enclosures and pillared canopies are treated separately since they are part of a larger ensemble, and both these structures require a slightly different approach to the numbering of photographs and data entry in the spreadsheet. For the present article and the pilot study, these structures are excluded from discussion; however, the coding system discussed above is sufficiently comprehensive to include the data entry for all structures at a later stage. Graves within canopies and enclosures also pose constraints for photo-documentation, similar to those noted above.

Inventorying the structures and platforms of graves provides an opportunity to fully analyse the tradition and to investigate trends, continuations and digressions; for example, the very limited use of writing on graves. Similarly, larger-scale trends, preferences of motif palettes and exceptions can be identified across graveyards. This dataset can therefore inform future research and help postulate larger cultural trends with quantitative evidence at hand. There are numerous further sites and data can be added incrementally by including new headings and sub-headings as required. This method of documentation has great potential for further investigation and research into this widespread tradition and shared patrimony.

Conclusion

The systematic documentation of stone-carved graves and graveyards in lower Sindh and Baluchistan marks a significant step towards preserving an under-researched but culturally rich funerary heritage of these regions. By developing an alpha-numeric coding system grounded in site-specific data and historical context, this study offers a foundational framework that can support further research, conservation efforts and digital archiving of these endangered heritage sites. The pilot study conducted at Malir, Sondha and Pir-Patho graveyards has demonstrated both the feasibility and the challenges of such an endeavour, including the need for consistent categorisation, extensive fieldwork and adaptability to diverse grave typologies.

While the coding system presented above serves as a useful starting point, it also highlights the limitations inherent in such an undertaking, particularly the variability of motifs and structural features, deterioration of stonework over time and the lack of prior documentation to build on. Nevertheless, this study paves the way for a replicable methodology that can be applied across the region and potentially extended to similar cultural contexts. Going forward, the development of an inventory dataset, the integration of digital tools, community engagement and interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential in enriching and sustaining this documentation process. Ultimately, this initiative contributes not only to the preservation of a unique regional identity but also to the broader discourse on the stone carving tradition in South Asia and around the Indian Ocean.

Funding

This pilot study was funded by NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, under the Independent Research Project grant via the Advance Studies Research Board Resolution # ASRB-110.3(B) approved by the Vice Chancellor NEDUET. The project was titled Mapping and Documentation of Stone Carved Graves and Graveyards in Lower Sindh: Building a Data Bank. The approved amount of the grant was 0.975 million PKR, and the approved duration was one year, finishing in April 2023, and later extended until December 2023.

Declarations and conflicts of interest