Introduction
The intensification of globalisation has brought with it various crises that have affected humanity. Simultaneously, it has spurred the development of new educational paradigms aimed at promoting a more peaceful, equitable and sustainable world. Global citizenship education (GCE) as a new educational model has evolved and gained traction following the Global Education First Initiative (GEFI, 2012), which underscores three goals: fostering global citizenship; expanding access to education; and improving the quality of learning. GCE was revisited in Goal 4.7 of the 2030 agenda for Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the United Nations in 2016, in which the role of education was expanded beyond literacy and arithmetic skills to include civic values that prepare learners to critically think and engage in solving issues of global concern (Torres, 2017; UNESCO, 2014, 2015, 2018). The goal states:
By 2030 ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including among others through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.
(UNESCO, 2016: 13)
Despite the expansion of the GCE field, its agenda has been criticised by post-colonial scholars as imperialist, contested and ambiguous (Andreotti, 2010; Jorgenson and Shultz, 2012; Kiwan, 2018; Tukan, 2018). These pushbacks underscore the necessity for ongoing critical engagement with the concept of GCE that brings voices from marginalised and post-colonial contexts. Put differently, the objective is to look at GCE beyond the Western-centric discourses that normalise the neoliberal world order towards an egalitarian framework that embraces the silenced voices of the marginalised population located on the other side of the abyssal lines. Santos (2018) proposed the concept of the abyssal lines to metaphorically indicate the lines between the West and the East. While the former’s knowledge and experiences have always been privileged by being scientific and emancipatory, the latter have been sidelined for being ‘backward’, traditional and illegitimate. In fact, there is a dearth of research that centres GCE within Global South contexts, and even less focus on the analysis of school curricula in the Maghreb and the broader North Africa regions. Against this background, this study uses English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education as a lens to delve into the conceptualisation and the application of GCE in post-colonial Algeria, interrogating the extent to which it promotes a cosmopolitan ethic or reinforces imperialist ideologies through the dominance of Western epistemologies and linguistic hierarchies.
EFL education in the Global South
The imposition of English as a global language in the periphery countries, which is driven by economic or political motives, resulted in its instrumentalisation as a tool for cultural hegemony that serves the centre (Canagarajah, 1999; Giroux, 1987). At the local level, the consequence is an interruption of the internal linguistic landscape. In the case of post-colonial Algeria, for instance, it created a competition between English as a global language with the existing colonial language – French – and the marginalisation of other native and official/national languages. In addition, it poses a challenge pertaining to the cultural content of the textbooks. Using Guilherme’s (2007: 80) words, the challenge is in tailoring the teaching of English language in a way that avoids an ‘ethnocentric’ nationalistic approach and an ‘ethno-cleansing’ Eurocentric approach, towards an ‘ethno-decentring’ approach that is unbiased and meaningful to foster global citizenship. Although this question is relevant to the query that revolves around the most suitable GCE framework, its actualisation in practice remains an open-ended conversation, especially in post-conflict contexts with unique colonial histories and strong nationalism.
In fact, there are various discussions in the field of applied linguistics that revolve around the investment in EFL teaching for the benefit of the periphery. Scholars endorse its use as a tool to empower individuals, advocate for social justice and foster the core ethical values of global/cosmopolitan citizenship that are needed in today’s interconnected polarised world (for example, Awayed-Bishara, 2020, 2021; Canagarajah, 1999; Guilherme, 2006, 2007, 2017). Canagarajah (1999: 2, emphasis in original) succinctly demonstrates the option of resisting the imperialistic nature of English through turning it to the benefits of the periphery as follows:
The powerless in post-colonial communities may find ways to negotiate, alter, and oppose political structures, and reconstruct their languages, cultures, and identities to their advantage. The intention is not to reject English, but to reconstitute it in more inclusive, ethical, and democratic terms, and so bring about the creative resolutions to their linguistic conflicts.
The question of whether educational institutions in the periphery invest in English to resolve their local linguistic complexity is not clear. In fact, ‘the cultural hegemony’ that is imposed in the form of English language as a discourse is confronted with another reality in the periphery with respect to the legitimate ‘official knowledge’ (Apple, 2014, 2019). While school textbooks could be used as an ‘artefact’ to delve into this knowledge, it is an area that is still under-researched.
Global citizenship education
Global citizenship education emerged as a response to the failure of national education to deal with global crises (Andreotti, 2010). In this respect, the purpose of educating for global citizenship is to add value to national citizenship (Torres, 2017). In fact, it is hardly appropriate to talk about a single definition of GCE or global citizenship. Rather, there are GCEs and global citizenships, each with a different interpretation depending on the context. To facilitate the discussion on the concept of GCE, I opted for Pashby et al.’s (2020) conceptual model (see Figure 1), due to its inclusive nature in terms of capturing the different types of GCE. Adopting this model will provide a guide in classifying the different GCE ideologies embedded in the standardised textbooks, as well as in suggesting directions for future research.
Global citizenship education typologies (Source: adapted from Pashby et al., 2020)
Neoliberal GCE is the most widespread category. While it is connected to various terms, it fundamentally follows the core principles of neoliberal education, emphasising economic development through investment in human capital. A neoliberal form of GCE is grounded on the following ideologies: competitiveness; employability; academic utility; standardization; and competency-based approaches. Cultivating neoliberal global citizens involves equipping learners with the skills necessary to compete in the global market (Pashby et al., 2020).
Unlike the neoliberal orientation of GCE, which is driven by economic motives, the liberal orientation is associated with the moral and ethical values needed to cope with a global interconnected world. Guided by the concepts of cosmopolitanism (Appiah, 2002, 2006; Nussbaum, 2002) and multiculturalism (Schattle, 2008; Tarozzi and Torres, 2016; Torres, 2017), educating for global citizenship implies fostering the values of common humanity, openness, love, mutual respect, tolerance, empathy and dialogue (Pashby et al., 2020). This form of global citizenship, however, is viewed as problematic due to the tensions existing between the secularist cosmopolitan world view grounded in Western Enlightenment philosophies (Rizvi et al., 2006) and the so-called ‘traditional local practices’ and their boundaries with respect to human rights (Torres, 2017). Another tension is the one existing between cosmopolitanism and patriotism (Appiah, 2002; Banks, 2008, 2009a, 2009b; Nussbaum, 2002). Both are approached as ‘sentiments more than ideologies’ (Appiah, 2002: 23). Whereas patriotism is viewed as a refuge, its antithesis – cosmopolitanism – is a feeling that one develops when expanding one’s horizon about a broader definition of the common good. Cosmopolitan consciousness entails putting one’s ‘right before country and universal reason before the symbols of national belonging’ (Nussbaum, 2002: 17). Cosmopolitan consciousness involves fostering a sense of belonging to the larger human community beyond national boundaries (Nussbaum, 2002).
Neoliberal–liberal GCE involves the interaction between the neoliberal and liberal dimensions. This is underscored by the unquestioned hegemonic status of the English language as essential for developing global competence and openness and engagement with diverse cultural practices (Pashby et al., 2020). The way cosmopolitanism is driven by the interests of neoliberalism also plays out in the growing endeavours for cooperation to support the global economic system, guided by the principles of free markets and privatisation (Gaudelli, 2009).
The neoconservative–neoliberal–liberal category integrates the nation state’s approach to the discourse on neoliberal and liberal GCE. Gaudelli (2009: 72) highlights this in terms of its bottom-up reaction to the discourse on global citizenship, which plays out in the ‘inviolable sovereignty of national governments and the necessary relationship between national government and its citizens’. Given the crucial role that national governments play in the education of the citizen, Pashby et al. (2020: 153, emphasis added) underscore this category, suggesting that ‘in the current context of resurgent nationalisms … there is a need for further examination of this as a de facto GCE orientation and its potential impacts on education and global relations’.
Critical–post-critical GCE is the last category, and it is associated with various terms. Despite the diversity of terminologies used across the literature, scholars agree on its critical dimension, which entails undoing the supremacy of Eurocentric discourses on global citizenship that marginalise people in the Global South (Abdi et al., 2015; Andreotti, 2010, 2011; Pashby et al., 2020). With its social justice orientation, it entails critical reflection that considers the unique aspects of local contexts and the diversity of lived experiences. The goal is to examine the social, cultural, political and economic systems which inhibit initiatives that advance peace and justice projects and exacerbate social inequities (Abdi et al., 2015; Andreotti, 2010; Kester, 2023). Andreotti (2014) and Pashby et al. (2020) opt for the term ‘Other’ to advocate for uncovering discourses beyond modernity and Enlightenment that have not yet been captured. Therefore, the ‘post’ does not imply elimination of former approaches, but finding a way to embrace diverse ways of thinking to address specific forms of GCE in particular contexts (Kester, 2023). This is in line with Mignolo and Walsh’s (2018) idea of challenging the colonial matrix of power with the goal of bringing harmony and equilibrium into life. This also requires reviving Indigenous epistemologies as key to achieving the goal of ‘living together as part of a shared planet and a global and very diverse community consisting of human and nonhuman beings’ (Andreotti et al., 2012: 236).
Foreign-language education in Algeria: a terrain for resistance
Algeria’s colonial history with the French was an experience of oppression, trauma and identity erasure. An estimated 1.5 million Algerians lost their lives in the Algerian War of Independence. Opting for a revolutionary model for nation building, Algeria’s post-colonial foreign-language policy is consistently shaped by the politics of colonial struggles and anti-colonial resistance. Before the French occupation in 1830, religion and education were entwined, with a literacy rate of about 40–50 per cent (Benrabah, 1999). Different types of religious schools flourished and were funded by awqaf, charity provided by wealthy people (Abdulrazak, 1982; Benrabah, 1999). Islam played an important role in education, and literacy was inspired by the Islamic learning tradition (Ezzaki and Wagner, 1992). Following the occupation of Algeria, France banned all institutions that contributed to the dissemination of Islamic culture or the teaching of Arabic language (Ezzaki and Wagner, 1992). Upon the closure of the Qur’anic schools, the educational system was transformed to preserve the European cultural pattern. As a result, French was imposed as the official language by means of assimilation, with the eradication of the Indigenous Arabo-Muslim culture and language, and the value system of Arabs and Amazigh (Djoudi, 2018; Le Roux, 2017). This resulted in the Indigenous people’s resistance to the secular colonial educational system, leading to an illiteracy rate that reached 90 per cent in 1962 (Benrabah, 2004; Le Roux, 2017). The nationalistic movements initiated before the war of liberation, however, contributed to the flourishing of literary Arabic, which was taught in religious schools (Djitè, 1992; Le Roux, 2017).
Following the departure of the French, Algerian independence was incomplete without regaining the identity of the nation state, defined as the ‘Arabo-Islamic’ identity. In 1963, Islam was declared as the religion and Arabic as the official language of the independent state (Le Roux, 2017). The Arabisation of primary and secondary schools was completed by 1974, and French was declared as a foreign language to be taught from fourth grade (Abu Haidar, 2000).
In the 1990s, the décennie noire (Black Decade) was a major event that impacted foreign-language policy in Algeria. Ten years of bloody civil war resulted from the conflict between the FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) and the government due to the exclusion of the former from national politics (Fuller, 1996). During this period, a law was passed in 1991 to solidify the imposition of the Arabisation policy in Algerian society, along with prohibitions on the use of any foreign language, including French, in the education, administration or commerce sectors (Abid-Houcine, 2010; Abu Haidar, 2000). Limited to formal instruction, French was taught as the first foreign language in primary school, while English was introduced as the second foreign language in middle school (Benrabah, 2014). One of the outcomes of this measure is the Kabyle rebellion against the policy of assimilation initiated by Arabisation, and their demands for the recognition of the Tamazight language and culture (Benrabah, 2014). This consciousness was initiated through a series of social movements called the Printemps berbère (Berber Spring), which developed as a reaction to the government’s repression of the Tamazight language (Abu Haidar, 2000). The Kabyle movement impacted all educational institutions in Kabylia and Algiers (Abu Haidar, 2000), leading to the introduction of Tamazight in schools in 1995 (The Economist, 1998). For security reasons, and due to political unrest, the promotion of English from foreign partners was also suspended (Belmihoub, 2018). However, with the country’s transition to a free market economy in the 2000s, the educational reform of 2003 was initiated, underscoring EFL instruction as a necessary condition for the integration of the learner in the world of modernity (Ministry of National Education, 2005).
Methods
Research design
This study uses EFL education as a lens to bring a post-colonial perspective to the conceptualisation and application of GCE in post-colonial Algeria. It adopts a qualitative case study design that offers an in-depth analysis of four middle school standardised EFL textbooks that are currently used in public schools in Algeria. The textbooks constitute an important component of the curriculum, and their design and publication are strictly supervised by the Ministry of Education. The selected textbooks also constitute part of deuxième génération (second generation) reform, which aims at reimplementing the principles of competency-based instruction. Moreover, their publication was initiated from 2016 to 2019 to embrace the agenda of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
The starting point of the analysis is the selection of sample texts and visuals from the textbooks. In his discussion on the choice of excerpts for coding, Fairclough’s (1992: 230) advice centres on cruces, or what he has also labelled ‘moments of crisis’: crucial moments in discourse. To link Fairclough’s (1992) proposal to this study, I focused on the content of texts and visuals that centre on the local identity and the way it is positioned and interacts with other identities, or the constitutive other (Crossouard and Dunne, 2020a, 2020b). Table 1 summarises the data used for analysis.
Data analysis
Multimodal critical discourse analysis is used as an analytical framework to deconstruct the different ideologies embedded in the linguistic and visual structures (Gualberto and Kress, 2021). The different tools that are classified according to Halliday’s (1978) linguistic framework, that is, the ideational metafunction (thematic content) and the interpersonal metafunction (social roles and relationships), are used. Strategies used for the analysis of the linguistic content of the texts in terms of both metafunctions are summarised in Table 2 and Table 3.
Junior high school EFL textbooks
| Book title | Authors | Grade | Texts | Visual material |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| My Book of English, Year One | Tamrabet et al. (2016) | 6 | 8 | 18 |
| My Book of English, Year Two | Tamrabet et al. (2017a) | 7 | 9 | 10 |
| My Book of English, Year Three | Tamrabet et al. (2017b) | 8 | 29 | 21 |
| My Book of English, Year Four | Tamrabet et al. (2019) | 9 | 27 | 13 |
| Total | 73 | 62 |
Textual analysis in terms of the ideational metafunction (Source: summarised from Machin and Mayr, 2012: 3–44, 106–42)
| Strategy | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 1. Transitivity and representation of acts | 1.1 Material processes: verbs that include physical material/action. |
| 1.2 Mental processes: verbs that denote cognition, perception, affection and decision. | |
| 1.3 Behavioural processes: verbs that denote psychological or physical states. | |
| 1.4 Verbal processes: verbs that denote verbal actions, for example, ‘to say’. | |
| 1.5 Existential processes: representation of something as it exists or happens, for example, ‘to be’. | |
|
2. Agency The representation of social actors in a sentence |
Agents: individuals involved in material processes. |
|
3. Transformation Passivation and nominalisation |
3.1 Active voice: unmarked choice (Fairclough, 1992) Sentence structure with agent–verb–object. |
| 3.2 Passive voice: marked choice (Fairclough, 1992): relocation or deletion of the agent. | |
|
4. Lexical structure and choice Analysis of language at the vocabulary or lexical level |
4.1 Lexical choices: over-lexicalisation, suppression/lexical absence, structural opposition, genre of communication. |
| 4.2 Metaphors: the transference of something from one place to another based on perceived similarity between the two places (Van Leeuwen, 2005). |
Similarly, strategies used for the analysis of the ideational and interpersonal metafunctions of visuals are summarised in Table 4 and Table 5.
Textual analysis in terms of the interpersonal metafunction (Source: summarised from Machin and Mayr, 2012: 187; Van Leeuwen, 2008: 25–51)
| Strategy | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 1. Modality | 1.1 Epistemic modality: certainty, for example, ‘may’. |
| 1.2 Deontic modality: instructing others to do something, for example, ‘must’. | |
| 1.3 Dynamic modality: the possibility of something or the ability to complete an action, for example, ‘can’, ‘will’. | |
| 2. Representation of social actors | 2.1 Activation and agency: the representation of social actors as ‘active dynamic forces’. |
| 2.2 Categorisation: the representation of social actors in terms of identities and functions shared with others. | |
| 2.3 Functionalisation: the representation of social actors in terms of their activity or their high social status. |
Visual analysis in terms of the ideational metafunction (Source: summarised from Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006; Painter et al., 2013)
| Elements for the analysis of visuals | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 1. Processes |
1.1 Narrative (vectorial): the presentation of unfolding actions or events. (1) Action: it involves actor, goal and event. (2) Reaction: it involves a reactor; someone who does the action of looking as a reaction to a specific action. |
|
1.2 Conceptual: the representation of participants in terms of class, structure or meaning. The process is classificatory when participants are related to each other in terms of the kind of relationship. |
|
|
2. Circumstances The details of the physical environment in the image (Painter et al., 2013) |
(1) Visuals lack details about the circumstances: the viewer focuses on the character’s behaviour. (2) Visuals include details about the context: the viewer focuses on the story depicted in the image (Painter et al., 2013). |
Visual analysis in terms of the interpersonal metafunction (Source: summarised from Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006; Painter et al., 2013)
| Elements for the analysis of visuals | Explanation |
|---|---|
|
Contact and modality The representation of people, places and things in a specific way (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006) |
Focalisation: the interaction between the represented participant and the viewer (1) demand: a gaze directed from the represented participant to the viewer through which the former demands something from the latter (for example, create social bonds or distance). (2) offer: it does not involve any contact from the represented participant; it is instead ‘the object of the viewer’s scrutiny’ (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006: 119). |
Findings and analysis
The neoliberal dimension of GCE
Neoliberalism juxtaposes the advancement of human well-being with the promotion of entrepreneurial skills (Harvey, 2005), which necessitates access to two global literacy skills (Tsui and Tollefson, 2006): technology and English. The content of the textbooks naturalises neoliberal ideologies, underscoring the mastery of global literacy skills as a prerequisite for global citizenship.
The institutionalisation of EFL in the Algerian context cannot be separated from that of the French language due to the competing ideologies associated with the instruction of each language. The content of the four textbooks depicts the traumatic and brutal experience of Algerian civilians during the French occupation, engendering attitudes of resistance towards the French language. Meanwhile, there is conviviality towards the instruction and mastery of EFL, which is often associated with positive feelings. Crucial keywords, phrases and sentences that are relevant to the analysis are underlined throughout the excerpts.
I am happy. I speak English now. I have friends from all over the world. Margaret is from Great Britain. She is British. Bonnie is from America … Chen is from China … Michel is from France … Santos is from Brazil … Annitah is from Kenya … Harry is from Australia … They are all middle school pupils.
(Excerpt 1, My Book of English, middle school, Year One – Tamrabet et al., 2016: 138)
In Excerpt 1, the expression ‘I am happy’ is an existential process (Machin and Mayr, 2012), which denotes one’s contentment attributed to the skill of mastering a new foreign language that is not associated with the former colonial power. In ‘I speak English now’, there is a material process (Machin and Mayr, 2012) with the representation of the student as the actor and English as the goal. The student’s mastery of EFL therefore made him/her a global citizen.
Besides the textual material, getting to know the other is represented through different ‘generic style’ (Painter et al., 2013) visuals in which the Algerian youth use English to introduce themselves and their families, and exchange information about their country. Figure 2 is presented as part of a sequence titled ‘Me and my family’.
My Book of English, middle school, Year One (Tamrabet et al., 2016: 49); sixth-grade equivalent, age 11. To the left, Omar, an Algerian student with black hair and black eyes, and to the right, Peter, a British student with blond hair and blue eyes
The ideational metafunction of the visual is narrative representation, which involves both action and reactional processes (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006). In Figure 2, the action process is represented through the vector symbolised by the red arrow depicting Omar (the actor) with the action of showing his family picture to Peter (the beneficiary). The visual also has transitional reactional process, symbolised in Peter’s reaction to Omar’s family picture through a gaze. Meanwhile, the interpersonal metafunction of the visual is represented through the proximity (Painter et al., 2013) between both characters. The absence of gaze from the depicted characters to the viewer turns the content of the visual into an offer to be scrutinised by the viewers (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006).
In addition to English, the neoliberal dimension of GCE is depicted through the different digital technologies. The visual material displays generic characters communicating with people from other nationalities, through audiovisual social media, emails and blogs. Figure 3 is an example taken from a sequence titled ‘Me and my family’.
My Book of English, middle school, Year One (Tamrabet et al., 2016: 57); sixth-grade equivalent, age 11. Omar, an Algerian student, writing an email to Margaret, a White British student
The ideational metafunction of the picture is narrative representation (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006), depicted through the action of Omar (actor) using the computer (the goal). Omar is sharing about himself, and learning from the other through a common code, English.
The liberal dimension of GCE
The liberal dimension of GCE, which emphasises coordination, aligns with the moral and ethical values essential for navigating an interconnected world. Rooted in the principles of cosmopolitanism (Appiah, 2006; Nussbaum, 2002) and multiculturalism (Tarozzi and Torres, 2016; Torres, 2017), educating for cosmopolitan citizenship involves cultivating a sense of shared humanity, dialogue, tolerance and respect of difference. The textbooks’ content embraces these values symbolising global interconnectedness and endorsing openness to the Other.
Figure 4 has a conceptual representation in which the participants are related through a classificatory process (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006). More specifically, there is rapport among participants based on a superordinate–subordinate relationship, which is visualised through the world as superordinate and the children from different nationalities as subordinate members belonging to the same planet. The interconnectedness between the local and the global is expressed in the slogan ‘We are the children of Algeria; we are the children of the world’, depicting that belonging to the country entails belonging to the world.
Likewise, Figure 5 has conceptual representation in which participants relate to each other through a classificatory process (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006). It depicts the unity and harmony among participants based on a superordinate–subordinate relationship demonstrated through the world as superordinate and the children from different backgrounds as subordinates. With individuals portrayed in generic style, it also symbolises empathy and belonging to a common humanity (Painter et al., 2013).
Following Pashby et al.’s (2020) position, the content of the textbooks endorses the neoliberal–liberal dimension of GCE, which entails an interaction between the two ideologies: the neoliberal and the liberal. When it comes to the dialectics of the local and the global, however, the textbooks’ content suggests a set of conundrums which point towards the contentious and complex nature of GCE. This also points towards the problematisation of Western-centric discourses normalised by the modern imaginary (Pashby et al., 2020), hence unveiling the complexity of GCE in post-colonial and post-conflict contexts such as Algeria.
My Book of English, middle school, Year Two (Tamrabet et al., 2017a: 9); seventh-grade equivalent, age 12. On the top from left to right, there are four Algerian students: Kaouthar, Douaa, Younis and Maria. On the bottom from left to right: Margaret from the UK, Cheng from China, Natasha from Russia and Peter from the USA
My Book of English, middle school, Year Two (Tamrabet et al., 2017a: 33); sixth-grade equivalent, age 11. Children from diverse backgrounds: race/ethnicity, skin colour, gender and abilities
The dialectics of the local and the global
The conundrum of GCE and colonialism
Through the concept of collective memories (Halbwachs, 1935, 1968), the content draws heavily on the French-Algerian experience during the colonial era. The term ‘collective memories’ refers to the process of recalling past events witnessed and narrated by a specific group of people. It implies a reconstruction of the past with the use of elements from the present (such as souvenirs, storytelling and testimonials) (Halbwachs, 1968), creating an interaction between the individual’s mind and the concepts of locations, shapes and names (Vromen, 1975). The textbooks embrace this theme through the invocation of storytelling and testimonial of the Algerian Mujahids (freedom fighters) to illustrate their oppression by the French coloniser. They also draw on the intellectual contribution of the Algerian expatriates who advocated for the right of Algerians for liberation.
Colonial and post-colonial trauma
Colonial and post-colonial trauma encompass the physical and emotional pain that Algerians experienced during the colonial rule, which continues to have an enduring impact in the post-colonial period:
In the early 1800s, Algerians were driven out of their own lands and forced to surrender their crops and farmland to the French.
(Excerpt 2, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 128)
Due to the marked nature of the passive voice (Fairclough, 1992; Fowler, 1991), the transformation of the sentences in Excerpt 2 entails the relocation of participants and the deletion of the agent responsible for the action. In this case, the goal, that is, ‘Algerians’, is moved to the initial position to emphasise their experience of dispossession by the French settlers. Moreover, the material processes, ‘drive someone out’ and ‘force someone’, invite the reader to empathise with the oppressed Algerians.
The content also refers to the trauma that Algerians experienced during the French occupation. Kateb Yacine, an Algerian novelist, witnessed the events of 8 May 1945 in Setif and Guelma, two cities in the northeast of Algeria, when Algerians’ demand for their right to freedom was met with a massacre of thousands of protesters. The spatial dimension that characterises collective memories entails the significance of space and the imprint that a specific group leaves on that space (Halbwachs, 1968). In Excerpt 3, there is a testimonial through the voice of Yacine, which is amplified in Excerpt 4 with a narration of its implications:
The conflict exploded later, during the events of Setif … There was a massacre. I was nearly shot dead. I was arrested and sent to prison with many of my schoolmates.
(Excerpt 3, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four, listening script – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 7)
He was arrested and held for two months. After that, he was not allowed back into school. During his detention, his mother became insane.
(Excerpt 4, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 44)
The process of passivation in Excerpt 3 brought the goal, ‘Yacine’, to the initial position in the sentence. The material processes of ‘shooting’, ‘arrest’ and ‘imprisonment’ by the French army, along with the nouns ‘conflict’ and ‘massacre’, invite the reader to empathise with Yacine. Likewise, Excerpt 4 amplifies this suffering and empathy.
Excerpt 5 is a testimonial of an elderly Algerian who witnessed the period of French occupation, narrating his experience to his grandchild:
I have never known that my maternal grandfather was a freedom fighter – a Mujahid – during the Algerian revolution … This is the first time he has ever told me about his painful experience of the war against the French army. He thinks that I have just reached the age to understand all the human misery and suffering he has endured. I think that my grandfather is still suffering today and that he has never recovered from that terrible war experience.
(Excerpt 5, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 77)
Using Machin and Mayr’s (2012) concept of over-lexicalisation, there is an emphasis on different words and their synonyms, such as ‘painful’, ‘misery’, ‘suffering’ and ‘terrible’; all allude to the dehumanisation of Algerians. The over-lexicalisation and overemphasis also entail an over-persuasion of the reader. In addition, the mental processes (Machin and Mayr, 2012), such as ‘think’ and ‘understand’, and the behavioural processes (Machin and Mayr, 2012), such as ‘never recovered’ and ‘suffer’, invite the reader’s empathy with the grandfather for his trauma.
Pictorial depiction also highlights the theme of trauma, as demonstrated in Figure 6. The narrative representation is demonstrated through a scene of Zohra Drif during the moment of her arrest by French soldiers. The representational structure of the visual is also a reactional process, depicting Zohra as the reactor whose non-verbal language invites the viewer to empathise with her. According to Halbwachs (1935), the representation of collective memories through naturalistic images has significance in the sense that it facilitates their retention to the individual’s conscience.
My Book of English, middle school, Year Four (Tamrabet et al., 2019: 84); ninth-grade equivalent, age 14. Zohra Drif, an Algerian freedom fighter when she was arrested during the Battle of Algiers
The racist Europeans
The textbook content also draws on Algerians’ experience with racism in educational institutions. Although these experiences still exist in modern times, as practised in Islamophobic policies and the brutal treatment of Arabs/Muslims in some European countries, the textbook content focuses on the experiences of racism during the colonial period. In Excerpt 6, Zohra recalls her journey as an Arab student in a French school during colonial Algeria:
when we parted to go home, I told her, still crying, ‘you know, Roselyne, everybody knows you’re an excellent student. It was an accident. Next year, you’ll get it.’ Roselyne replied, ‘But Zohra, it’s not that. You don’t understand a thing. How do I explain to my mother that you passed and I didn’t? She will never understand that Zohra the Arab succeeded and I failed.’ I was unsure whether I had misunderstood or understood all too well. Soon my tears dried up. I looked her in the eye and spat back, ‘Well, you’ll just have to explain to your mother that it was the Arabs like Zohra who invented mathematics.’
(Excerpt 6, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 82)
As represented in the behavioural processes (Machin and Mayr, 2012) through the verbs ‘still crying’ and ‘dried up’, Zohra expresses her compassion with her European classmate, Roselyne. The latter, on the other hand, through the process of categorisation (Van Leeuwen, 2008), denies the fact that an Arab should be in an equal position to a European. This incident of racism is met by a self-affirmation on the part of Zohra through the concept of functionalisation (Van Leeuwen, 2008), reclaiming the accomplishment of Arabs during the Islamic Golden Age. The incident also contributed to raising Zohra’s consciousness about the reality of being an Arab student in a French school:
… I suddenly realised that all my excellent marks, all my efforts to learn the French language and culture and all my sincere feeling of friendship for Roselyne would never make me the equal of Roselyne, the European. With one simple sentence, she put me in my place as the ‘Arab’.
(Excerpt 7, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 82)
Zohra’s racist incident did not only impact her psychologically; it was also a moment of growth. Therefore, the use of mental process (Machin and Mayr, 2012) through the verb ‘realise’, along with the process of categorisation (Van Leeuwen, 2008) in ‘the “Arab”’, invite the reader to empathise with her.
Resistance to French language and culture
Excerpt 8 is a testimonial made by Yacine depicting his experience as a young Algerian student at a French school during colonial Algeria:
I noticed then that while I was getting more interested in school and in learning, I started to drift away from the world I preferred, which of course is my mother’s world. This caused conflicting feelings in me, but I did not figure things out clearly at the time as I was very young. I wasn’t mature enough…
(Excerpt 8, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four, listening script – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 7)
Yacine’s personal experience caused him to enter a state of alienation. The verb ‘drift away’ is classified as a mental process (Machin and Mayr, 2012) that has aspects related to cognition, perception and feelings, provoking the reader’s empathy. Yacine’s state of alienation also extends to include a state of resistance to the coloniser’s language:
… Kateb Yacine stopped writing in French and started writing in the Algerian vernacular Arabic to be closer to his people: ‘Mohamed, prends ta valise’ (Mohamed, grab your suitcase) is a good example of the plays he wrote during this period. It is about the problems of Algerian immigrant workers in France.
(Excerpt 9, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 44)
Through the material processes exemplified in the verbs ‘stopped’ and ‘started’, Excerpt 9 overtly describes Yacine’s resistance to the colonial language and his embracing of Darija (Algerian vernacular Arabic). As an alternative code, it both reflects his identity and is a tool for sharing bonds with his people.
The conundrum of GCE and nationalism
While GCE is guided by multiculturalism, the textbook narrative underscores the importance of Arab-Muslim identity as well as the Amazigh heritage (Hadjeris, 2024). Therefore, Arabic language and Islam serve as a form of decolonial resistance to unite Algerian citizens. Arab Islamic nationalism encompasses the themes of the Islamic Golden Age, Arab identity and the importance of the Arabic language.
The Islamic Golden Age
The content of the textbooks represents Muslims as active dynamic forces (Van Leeuwen, 2008). Therefore, different verbs that are categorised as either material or existential processes (Machin and Mayr, 2012) are linked to the theme of Muslims’ achievement during the Golden Age. Among the total number of material processes in third-year middle school textbooks, 45 per cent of the verbs depict the scientific activities of the Muslim Umma around various parts of the Muslim world (Tamrabet et al., 2017b). Likewise, the scientific accomplishments of various scholars during the Islamic Golden Age are expressed through existential processes. In the third-year middle school textbook, 40 per cent of the total number of existential processes refer to things that existed or activities that happened in the past. The scientific contribution of the Muslim Umma is also symbolised in visuals depicting characters, tools, invented devices and Islamic architecture. Figure 7 depicts Al Zahrawi, his assistants and students. The interpersonal metafunction of the picture can be identified as ‘an offer’ (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006) inviting the viewer to scrutinise its content (Painter et al., 2013). Using Kress and Van Leeuwen’s (2006) processes of narrative representation and reactional process, the visual depicts the agency of Al Zahrawi in performing surgery with the help of his assistants.
My Book of English, middle school, Year Three (Tamrabet et al., 2017b: 102); eighth-grade equivalent, age 13. Al Zahrawi, an Arab Andalusian physician, with his nurse, assistant and students in a surgery room in Cordoba in 980
The importance of Arabic language
Excerpt 10 is a testimonial of Taleb Ibrahimi, the son of Bachir Ibrahimi, who was one of the founders of the Algerian Association of Muslim Ulema (scholars):
My father came home with an Italian typewriter … What was unusual at the time is the fact that you could type in Arabic! It was probably the first Arabic typewriter to be introduced in Algeria. This machine changed me into my father’s secretary and confidant in the years 1948–1952. Thanks to it, I spent the happiest moments in my life with my father.
(Excerpt 10, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 93)
The importance of Arabic language is highlighted through the concept of over-lexicalisation: words that are over-emphasised (Machin and Mayr, 2012). This is demonstrated in the uniqueness of the situation, as expressed in the positive experience of Taleb psychologically, socially and professionally.
Likewise, Excerpt 11 demonstrates this theme. It is part of a news report about the post-contest interview with the young student Mohamed Djeloud, the winner of the Arab prize. It encompasses feelings of fondness associated with books that are written in Arabic:
Dubai: … The second grader, who travelled over 30 hours to attend the closing ceremony, told Gulf news he is very happy to have won the competition and is very grateful to his parents who encouraged him to read … Reading 50 books for the competition, Djeloud said his favorite book is an Arabic book called the cave man and the stone Age.
(Excerpt 11, My Book of English, middle school, Year Three – Tamrabet et al., 2017b: 32, parentheses in original)
The conundrum of the secular GCE (liberal) and the Islamic values
Despite the inclusion of the liberal dimension of GCE, delving into its implementation in practice indicates the conundrum of the secular form of GCE and the Islamic values. This manifests in the representation of the French and the Algerian worlds as two conflicting and incompatible worlds, expressed in the dichotomy of: dominating French versus dominated Algerians; modern French versus traditional Algerians; prestigious French versus inferior Algerians; and the secular French versus the religious Algerians. Machin and Mayr’s (2012) concept of structural opposition and Van Leeuwen’s (2008) concepts of differentiation, functionalisation and categorisation are used for the analysis of this theme.
Excerpt 12 is a testimonial by Yacine narrating his childhood memories and the impact of these experiences in raising his awareness of the disparities existing in society:
In my childhood there were … let’s say … the French schoolteacher and my mother, in endless conflict with each other, because they represented two opposite worlds. My mother represented Algeria, walking barefoot at home, with her long dress, speaking a different language, whereas my French schoolteacher walked with high-heel shoes … 20th century … dominating, prestigious country … France … well, this was a superior world to me.
(Excerpt 12, My Book of English, middle school, Year Four, listening script – Tamrabet et al., 2019: 7)
Through the expression ‘two opposite worlds’, Yacine associates the conflict between France and Algeria with socio-economic inequality and cultural differences. Inequality is embedded in his mother’s illiteracy, as opposed to his French schoolteacher’s intellectualism. Likewise, it is reflected in his mother’s lifestyle, that is, walking ‘barefoot’, versus his French teacher, that is, ‘high-heel shoes’. Cultural differentiation is expressed in the dress code and the linguistic differences. Last, there is an overemphasis on the superiority of France through over-lexicalisation (Machin and Mayr, 2012) in the adjectives ‘dominating’, ‘prestigious’ and ‘superior’.
The conundrum of GCE and patriotism
GCE is guided by the concept of cosmopolitanism (Appiah, 2002, 2006; Nussbaum, 2002). Unlike nationalism, which is viewed as an ideology, cosmopolitanism and patriotism are approached as ‘sentiments’ (Appiah, 2002: 23). As antithesis of patriotism, cosmopolitanism is a feeling of developing a sense of belonging to a common humanity. Although the theme of cosmopolitanism is to some extent included, the inevitable endorsement of patriotism conflicts with the ideology of cosmopolitanism. Besides remembrance of Algeria’s brutal history with France, patriotism is invoked through the inevitable love of the country and its symbols.
Beauty of the country
The importance of the notion of space relates to people’s raison d’être; losing one’s space is equal to losing one’s traditions or the reasons that justify one’s existence (Halbwachs, 1968). The content of the textbooks celebrates the country’s rich geography and cultural heritage, cultivating in learners a sense of pride. Using Machin and Mayr’s (2012) over-lexicalisation, over-emphasis and existential processes, Table 6 demonstrates this theme.
The importance of national symbols
The analysis of the selected linguistic and visual material shows that 13.26 per cent of the characters represent nationalists, freedom fighters and martyrs. The commemoration of national symbols also makes an important part of the school set-up. For instance, schools are named after shaheeds (Arabic word for martyrs) who lost their lives during the Algerian war of liberation. Figure 8 depicts a young Algerian student in front of her school, which is named after Shaheed Larbi Ben M’hidi. The visual is ‘symbolic attributive’ (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006), representing Ben M’hidi, a martyr who sacrificed his life during the Algerian war of liberation from the French occupation, so that the young generation could regain their dignity and freedom and have access to education.
Love and loyalty to the homeland
The themes of love and loyalty to the homeland manifest in poems, declarations by school learners, the national flag and poems (see Figure 9).
The concepts of metaphor (Fairclough, 1992; Machin and Mayr, 2012), personalisation (Van Leeuwen, 2008) and modality (Machin and Mayr, 2012) are used to deconstruct the content of the poem. First, metaphor refers to the way we construct our reality (Fairclough, 1992) through importing some concepts to understand others. Second, personalisation is about the representation of social actors as human beings through nouns that have [+human] semantic features (Van Leeuwen, 2008). Third, modality is expressed through modal verbs. Three types of modalities are identified by Fowler (1991): (1) truth (for example, ‘will’ and ‘could be’); (2) obligation (for example, ‘must’); and (3) permission (for example, ‘may’).
My Book of English: Lexical items denoting beauty of the country (Source: Tamrabet et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2019)
| Object | Existential processes |
|---|---|
| Algeria | ‘Africa’s largest country’ (Year Three) |
| ‘Home to national parks with great ecological and cultural significance’ (Year Three) | |
| ‘Vast landscape’, ‘a variety of ecosystems’ (Year Three) | |
| ‘More advanced in nature conservation’ (Year Three) | |
| Important national historical/geographical sites | ‘Djanet is the pearl of the Tassili’ (Year Two) |
| ‘The Tassili National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site’ (Year Two) | |
| ‘M’zab is a UNESCO World Heritage Site’ (Year Two) | |
| ‘Casbah is a UNESCO World Heritage Site’ (Year Two) | |
| ‘Djemila is the first of the great Roman cities’ (Year Three) ‘a UNESCO world Heritage Site’ (Year Three) |
|
| ‘The great mosque of Tlemcen is one of the oldest and best preserved Almoravid buildings in Algeria’ (Year Four) | |
| ‘Timgad was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites’ (Year Four) | |
| ‘Sidi M’cid is the highest bridge in the world between 1912–1929’ (Year Four) | |
| National cultural heritage | ‘Imzad is inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO’ (Year Three) |
In Lines 4 and 6, the lyrics read ‘Algeria, the rose …’ and ‘Algeria, my country, the best and the top’, respectively. Here, there is an existential reference to the country in a praising manner, as expressed in the underlined words; all denote its unique status, as specifically expressed in the superlatives ‘the best’ and ‘the top’.
In Lines 2 and 5, the lyrics read ‘I love you true’ and ‘I work hard for you, I never, never stop’, respectively. There is personalisation (Van Leeuwen, 2008) of the homeland, represented as having [+human] semantic features. This personalisation is accompanied with the act of love and affection (in Line 2) and sacrifice (in Line 5).
In the last two lines, the lyrics read ‘stand up classmates, greet her and say: Algeria, my country you’re the sun of my day’. The underlined verbs are used in the imperative mood, which is equivalent to Machin and Mayr’s (2012) deontic modality or Fowler’s (1991) obligation. In the poem, the writer assumes the participants’ duty to do something and, in this case, instructs them to: ‘stand up’, ‘greet’, and ‘say: Algeria, my country you’re the sun of my day’.
From this perspective, patriotism is used to ignite in learners the sentiments of love and affection; hence, a commitment to the protection of the homeland – feelings that are attributed to a long and brutal colonial history of dispossession, oppression, dehumanisation and identity erasure.
My Book of English, middle school, Year One (Tamrabet et al., 2016: 101); sixth-grade equivalent, age 11. An Algerian 11-year-old female student arriving at a middle school named after the martyr Larbi Ben M’hidi, an Algerian revolutionary leader who was executed by the French authorities
My Book of English, middle school, Year One (Tamrabet et al., 2016: 136); sixth-grade equivalent, age 11. A poem written by the coursebook authors and included at the end of Sequence 5, titled ‘Me, my country and the world’
Discussion and conclusion
Using an in-depth multimodal critical discourse analysis of four school textbooks, this article has examined the conceptualisation of GCE in post-colonial Algeria. The findings suggest that the discussion of GCE centres on different competing discursive categories (Gaudelli, 2009). First, the neoliberal dimension of GCE is embedded in the textbook content endorsing global literacy skills (Tsui and Tollefson, 2006). This plays out in the conviviality towards EFL due to its anonymity (Woolard, 2016) and neutrality, as the language that is not associated with any colonial power, compared to the resistance to the French language. Likewise, the content embraces the liberal orientation of GCE, with its ethical dimension that implies a sense of belonging to a common humanity and a commitment to the common good as a prerequisite to protect Mother Earth. Second, despite the existence of the neoliberal and the liberal dimensions of GCE, which both imply interconnectedness and participation in the global market, the findings also suggest the existence of a neoconservative–neoliberal–liberal (Pashby et al., 2020) form of GCE which underscores the sovereignty of the state. These findings point towards the problematisation of the practicality of the neoliberal–liberal dimension of GCE. Third, the four sets of conundrums that evolved from the analysis of the textbook narrative – namely GCE versus colonialism, GCE versus nationalism, GCE (cosmopolitanism) versus the Islamic values and GCE versus patriotism – point towards the significance of the colonial past of the nation. This history of oppression is used to challenge, resist and ‘delink’ (Mignolo and Walsh, 2018) from the colonial forced policies of assimilation and, by extension, the secular narrative on GCE. In this sense, the unfolding of the Muslim Umma as ‘Other’ (Andreotti, 2014), which contradicts Western-centric discourses of modernity and Enlightenment could also be viewed as a form of global citizenship. This, in turn, points towards the need to reimagine an egalitarian framework of GCE with ‘a cross-pollinating dialogue’ (Sahin, 2018) that brings together other voices, histories, languages, cultures and wisdom traditions to achieve the overarching goal of fostering a sustainable, harmonious and peaceful world.
Declarations and conflicts of interest
Research ethics statement
Not applicable to this article.
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Conflicts of interest statement
The author declares no conflicts of interest with this work. All efforts to sufficiently anonymise the author during peer review of this article have been made. The author declares no further conflicts with this article.
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