Social pedagogy has traditionally been classified into three main paradigms following the theory of knowledge interests by Jürgen Habermas: the positivist, the hermeneutical and the critical paradigm. In this article, we argue that the increased discussion of ecological and eco-social questions in social pedagogy are more than just new perspectives in social pedagogical theory and research: specifically, they are a sign of an eco-social turn and an emerging new paradigm, which presents the whole field with a challenge comparable to the so-called emancipatory turn in 1960s Germany. Back then, the rise of more critical views of society and the increasing role of social pedagogy in maintaining oppressive structures challenged the (at that time) dominant hermeneutical and positivist paradigms and called for a more critical analysis of societal structures. The emancipatory turn led to the development of the critical paradigm, which posed an ontological, epistemological and methodological challenge to the whole discipline and led to new discussions of the worldview and purpose of social pedagogy. We argue that in the 2020s, social pedagogy faces an equivalent transformative turn that challenges the whole field. The article is based on theoretical analysis of the current discussions in the field and aims to establish a meta-theoretical framework for existing and emerging discussions, which can be labelled eco-social. The concept of the eco-social turn has been presented in Finnish in a textbook published in 2024; this article presents the concept to English-speaking audiences and develops it further.
This article has been peer-reviewed through the journal’s standard double-blind peer-review process, where both the reviewers and authors are anonymised during review.
Throughout history and across various countries and regions, the development of social pedagogy has been closely tied to the surrounding social, cultural, socio-economic and other contextual conditions with the aim of addressing diverse social and educational needs, challenges and shortcomings (for example,
In the twenty-first century, one of the most fundamental of all problems is the ecological crisis. Climate change, biodiversity loss and species extinction are just a few examples of ecological processes that severely impact on human well-being, exacerbate global inequalities and ultimately threaten the planet’s survival. Accordingly, in the first decades of the twenty-first century, social pedagogical responses to this crisis have begun to appear. A variety of academic and professional initiatives emerged to address ecological questions by developing social pedagogical concepts and theoretical frameworks, such as social pedagogy of sustainability (
In this theoretical article, we argue that the recently emerged eco-social discussion in social pedagogy represents more than just a new perspective in social pedagogical theory, research and practice: it signifies an emerging new paradigm. Traditionally, in European analyses, social pedagogy has been classified into three main paradigms following
We propose that the emergence of the eco-social discourse in the field represents a new paradigmatic turn in social pedagogy. We have opted to call it the
We argue that, along with the paradigmatic turn, a new paradigm is emerging in the field, reshaping understanding of fundamental questions in social pedagogy and challenging the legitimacy of previous paradigms. We term this the
The concepts of the eco-social turn and the new eco-social paradigm in social pedagogy have been presented in Finnish in a social pedagogy textbook published in June 2024 (
In contemporary social pedagogy, we acknowledge that the practice of distinguishing between paradigms has largely faded from use. However, we advocate for reviving this approach as a valuable tool for highlighting and better understanding the differing perspectives on what social pedagogy is and what it seeks to achieve. The adopted approach serves to identify the main orientations that shape social pedagogical thinking and action both in research and practice. At the same time, we acknowledge the complexities inherent in the concept of
Among the three traditional paradigms in social pedagogy, the emergence of the critical paradigm in German social pedagogy in the 1960s bears the closest resemblance to the current developments in the field, which we identify here as a
In this section, we first outline the emancipatory turn and the emergence of critical social pedagogy in Germany to provide historical context and offer a mirror for reflecting on current developments in the field. We then define the paradigmatic turn as our analytical concept and use this in exploring the ecological and eco-social discussions in social pedagogy. It should be noted that the trajectory of development we are about to outline cannot be generalised as the global story of social pedagogy. In Brazil, for instance, the precursors to contemporary discussions of social pedagogy emerged with an already critical outlook through the efforts of many marginalised groups in society, such as Indigenous and Afro-Brazilian movements, as well as through the tradition of
Before the Second World War, the hermeneutical paradigm dominated German social pedagogy. This emphasised the importance of understanding historical reality, cultural communities and human experiences as foundational to the theory and practice of social pedagogy, and aimed to foster the personal development of every individual to their full potential in pedagogical relationships (
The 1960s became the decade of political activism for societal transformation in Europe and the United States. Various social and political movements advocated for civil rights, gender equality and peace. They sought to address social injustices, promote equality and sustainability, and challenge traditional norms and the old world order based on warfare technologies. Students were at the forefront of this activism, and universities became rallying points for critical reflection. Academics criticised the old ways of making and using science to promote the status quo. Within the social sciences, critical theory began to gain increasing influence (
Critical voices in social pedagogy confronted the positivist social work paradigm adopted from the United States, demanding a more politically conscious and engaged approach to education and social work (
The emancipatory turn fundamentally challenged the then-dominant ways of understanding and practising social pedagogy. First, it called for a new understanding of knowledge, science and the societal aims of social pedagogy. The positivist paradigm had claimed scientific knowledge to be neutral and objective. It had relied on empiricist research and standardised methods producing information about individual behaviour. The emancipatory turn questioned all this, arguing that both research and practice were inherently subjective and political, and thus could not be neutral. Instead, it blamed the positivist paradigm and the hermeneutical tradition for overlooking the power dynamics and structural inequalities that affect people’s lives. The positivist paradigm, on the one hand, had focused only on individual deficits and behaviours and aimed to adapt them into existing societal norms and values (
The emancipatory turn also challenged the field’s practical methodological foundations. Social pedagogical work was primarily about providing support and services to needy individuals, with top-down working methods. Educators and social workers acted as authorities who imparted solutions to passive recipients. The critique promoted dialogical and participatory methods inspired by, for instance,
The emergence of critical and self-reflective perspectives in German social pedagogy in the late 1960s was only later termed the
A paradigmatic turn refers to a notable change in the framework of a particular scientific field that causes a redirection in how phenomena are approached or interpreted. A well-known example of such a turn in history is the linguistic turn in philosophy in the early twentieth century, which increased the focus on language and concepts and how they shape human experience (see
The appearance of the first arguments or questions presenting new perspectives is not yet a paradigmatic turn. The new ideas need to be repeated by several researchers or theorists and even from several different angles, and must gain enough publicity and receptive audiences to create a more generalised awareness of a need to re-evaluate the focus of interest and research perspectives on the field. To generate a broader need for self-reflection, the discussion must reach some key arenas, such as important publications and conferences, attract wider attention and be considered relevant. When the discussion grows wide and powerful enough, it can start influencing the ways in which the field defines itself, its research interests and methodologies, and its purpose.
As a concept, the paradigmatic turn resembles the paradigm shift, a concept presented by Thomas Kuhn (1922–96). For
Ecological questions began to appear sporadically in theoretical discussions relevant to social pedagogy during the twentieth century, especially the latter half. For instance, Dewey (1859–1952) touched on ecological themes in his educational philosophy, and Freire was planning a book on eco-pedagogy in his final years (
Ecological and eco-social questions have become more prevalent in social pedagogy discussions in the new millennium, particularly since the 2010s, and researchers and theorists in several countries have started discussing the ecological crisis in the context of social pedagogy. Examples include Caride in Spain, who has been publishing texts on environmental education since the 1980s (for example,
Finland has been at the forefront of establishing ecological and eco-social themes in social pedagogy in Europe. A few prominent researchers have explicitly connected their research on eco-social themes to social pedagogy since the early 2010s; namely, Arto O. Salonen and Raisa Foster. Together with their colleagues, they have published widely on concepts and practices such as eco-social and ecojustice education in different contexts, addressing different, often arts-based approaches (for example,
In addition to these, we could mention many examples of social pedagogical researchers with an eco-social perspective. Thus, the eco-social discussion has clearly started and gained ground in the field. It is also evident that it calls for meta-theoretical systematisation, which this article seeks to provide.
Next, we analyse the developing ecological and eco-social discussions in social pedagogy within the framework of the paradigmatic turn. We have been examining ideas, perspectives and questions raised in these discussions, considering whether they could indicate an eco-social turn in the field instead of being merely a new thematic strand. We have identified perspectives that represent notable shifts when compared to traditional frameworks, ideas that challenge some of the basic definitions and even the fundamental principles of social pedagogy. We argue that it is justified to assert that, taken together, these are signs of an eco-social turn in the making.
The first major challenge for the field levelled by eco-social discussions concerns the scope of social pedagogy. Specifically, can we continue working only with social issues if well-being is fundamentally intertwined with ecological questions? Eco-social discussions have broadened the focus and redefined the purpose of social pedagogy. They speak of the necessity to address both social and ecological issues, to understand the interconnectedness of these and to recognise that human well-being is intrinsically linked to the planet’s health. Eco-social discussions broaden the purpose of social pedagogy to include the well-being of other species and the whole planet, stressing their intrinsic value instead of seeing them just as a precondition to human well-being (
Another notable challenge concerns the worldview and concept of humanity within the field. Traditionally, social pedagogy has followed a humanistic worldview, specifically highlighting human dignity and the value of every individual. The focus has been on personal and social growth, problems in human relationships and society as a human-made environment. Some strands of the eco-social discussions question the human-centredness of social pedagogy and argue for the urgency to shift away from anthropocentrism in order to recognise the equal rights of other animals and nature to flourish. This involves rethinking the role of humans in the ecosystem and fostering a sense of responsibility towards all forms of life (
The third sign of a paradigmatic turn is the application of new theories to understand the reality in which social pedagogy operates. Systems theory, eco-phenomenological, eco-feminist and post-humanist theories, and different combinations of biological and social sciences, are just a few examples of the new theoretical perspectives presented in recent discussions (
The fourth set of new perspectives concerns research methods and practical working methods. The eco-social discussion seems to be a breeding ground for new methods and practices that draw inspiration from different art forms, creative, embodied and nature-based methods, and pedagogical theories that highlight education as a transformative process (for example,
Based on our analysis, we claim that eco-social discussions shake the old frameworks of social pedagogy in such a profound way that it is justified to consider them a sign of an ongoing paradigmatic turn. Taken together, they prompt a shift in how phenomena are approached and understood. Following the established logic of paradigmatic turns, the eco-social turn is not a sudden upheaval. Rather, it has been in the making for at least a decade, and even longer if we consider the very first instances of ecological perspectives in social pedagogical discussions. In the mid-2020s, awareness of the new perspectives finding their way into social pedagogy seems to be increasing, and a perceived necessity to critically reflect on the established ways of understanding the world is growing.
To summarise the ideas discussed in the previous section, we propose that the ongoing eco-social turn holds at least two significant implications for social pedagogy. First, it marks the emergence of a new paradigm, which we refer to as eco-social social pedagogy and the eco-social paradigm. Second, the eco-social turn presents cross-cutting challenges to the whole field, much as the emancipatory turn did after the 1960s. In this section, we outline the characteristics of the emerging eco-social paradigm, while acknowledging that it is still in its formative stages.
In the context of social pedagogy, the term
The emerging eco-social paradigm broadens the scope of discussions in social pedagogy by introducing a fourth dimension to perspectives on the social: the eco-social. This dimension encompasses the more-than-human world, the ecological environment and the entire planet as the context for social pedagogical thinking and practices. It emphasises the fundamental interconnectedness of social and ecological issues, while also presenting a profound ontological challenge. It prompts reflection on humanity’s place and role within the whole and questions the traditional hierarchies that have historically placed humans at the top.
The new perspectives introduced by the eco-social paradigm can also be examined through the lens of its three domains of purpose: socialisation, subjectification and
Traditionally, the three domains of purpose in social pedagogy have been grounded in an anthropocentric and society-centric understanding of the world, with a primary focus on the triad of individual, community and society. The eco-social paradigm expands this perspective, shifting the focus from society alone to include the more-than-human world and a planetary scale. This introduces new layers to the three domains of purpose.
Alongside examination of the meanings of the term
The eco-social paradigm introduces to the first line of development the interconnectedness of social and ecological problems, thereby broadening traditional understanding of the types of issues social pedagogy should address through pedagogical solutions (for example,
In sum, the emerging eco-social paradigm seeks to integrate both ecological and social dimensions into the theory, research and practice of social pedagogy. It introduces new ideas, concepts, theoretical frameworks, research initiatives and practical developments to social pedagogy, while also maintaining the familiar aspects that differentiate social pedagogy from other pedagogical and educational approaches. However, as is typical with the emergence of a new paradigm, discussion surrounding the new themes in the field is diverse. This is what we aim to explore next.
Outlining an emerging eco-social paradigm in social pedagogy does not imply that eco-social social pedagogy could – or should, for that matter – be described as a homogeneous whole. We view it as an umbrella term, much like critical social pedagogy. Within critical or critical-emancipatory social pedagogy, various orientations and schools of thought can be recognised, such as reformist and radical currents of traditional critical pedagogy (
Accordingly, the umbrella of the eco-social paradigm encompasses approaches and orientations that do not present a univocal view on how ecological and eco-social aspects could and should be integrated into the theory and practice of social pedagogy. Instead, the eco-social paradigm can be presented as a continuum of approaches, with one end representing perspectives that simply incorporate an ecological dimension into social pedagogical thinking and action, and the other end advocating for a fundamental rethinking of the ontological foundation of social pedagogy. In other words, it is already possible to recognise both more ‘reformist’ and more ‘radical’ approaches taking shape within the emerging eco-social paradigm, much like those found in German critical social pedagogy and elsewhere from the 1970s onwards (see
In critical social pedagogy, the dividing line has been the approach to societal transformation and its means, leaning towards reformist (for example,
Approaches rooted in ecophenomenology, ecofeminism, post-humanism and similar theoretical foundations advocate for transcending established ontologies based on subject–object dichotomies (see, for example,
The more reformist approaches within the eco-social paradigm do not aim to shake the ontological foundations of social pedagogy or society. Instead, they add an eco-conscious layer in social pedagogy by stressing the interconnectedness of social and ecological issues and by advocating theories and practices, such as environmental education, that aim to increase the connection between humans and the more-than-human world. Whichever way these ontological questions are understood, in the eco-social paradigm ecological questions are brought to the forefront of social pedagogical thinking and practice in a new way.
In this article, we have used critical social pedagogy and the emancipatory turn of the 1960s as historical equivalents and mirrors for what is happening in the field in the 2020s. In the 1960s a need for new theories and practices in social pedagogy emerged, driven by the critique that social pedagogical practice was perpetuating oppressive structures rather than fostering societal transformation through pedagogical means. In the twenty-first century a similar critique has appeared, this time targeting the ways in which the practices of education – also those inherent to social pedagogy – are implicated in the ecological crisis: specifically, that they advocate an ecologically and socially unsustainable way of life and societal order by maintaining and reproducing an unhealthy relationship between humans and the more-than-human world (for example,
We have demonstrated that it is already possible to recognise the rapidly increasing theoretical and practical responses to ecological crises in social pedagogy as an eco-social turn. As well as having initiated the formation of a new paradigm, this challenges the entire field to reflect on its purpose and practices through an ecologically and eco-socially conscious lens, prompting re-examination of its ontological, epistemological and methodological foundations. Moreover, the eco-social turn raises ethical questions about the role and responsibility of social pedagogy in addressing ecological issues and finding pedagogical solutions for addressing the ecological crisis. This calls, among other things, for methodological innovations that can capture the interconnectedness of ecological and social dimensions in creative and holistic ways; for example, by adopting interdisciplinary, arts-based and participatory research methods.
The emancipatory turn in the 1960s did not lead to the disappearance of the older paradigms, and the eco-social turn will be no different. In many countries, from the 1970s onwards, critical social pedagogy, with its emphasis on emancipation, social justice and critical analysis of structural and systemic inequalities, became the dominant paradigm, at least in theoretical discussions. Following the challenge of the 1960s, the hermeneutical tradition recreated itself during the 1970s and 1980s and found a more critical angle for understanding social contexts and people’s life experiences. The new critical-hermeneutical orientation combined the hermeneutical interpretation of reality with emancipatory awareness of oppressive societal structures (
A different kind of example is the positivist paradigm, which was reborn as a technical paradigm in the 1990s with help from neoliberal government agendas (
These examples show that responses to a new paradigm can be manifold. The three traditional paradigms can – and in our view, should – be expected to respond to the challenges posed by the eco-social turn by widening and realigning their perspectives, as happened with the hermeneutical paradigm in the 1970s. However, as the example of the technical paradigm shows, a paradigmatic turn does not necessarily change the whole field.
Nevertheless, the historical examples are comparable with the current situation only up to a certain point. The ecological crisis poses such a profound threat to humanity, civilisations, the more-than-human world and the whole planet, that there is nothing comparable in modern history. There is not, or at least there should not be, any good argument for not responding to the call of the eco-social turn advocated by researchers and practitioners at the forefront of eco-social thinking. We argue that the whole field should hear the call of the eco-social turn to be able to address the complex and interconnected challenges of the twenty-first century and to promote a more just and sustainable world for all, including the more-than-human world.
From the perspective of social pedagogy, the changes in the field in the twenty-first century also require global analyses, not only because social pedagogy has developed differently in different regions, but also because the scale of the threat is global. In the twentieth century, social pedagogy was characterised by region-specific and even local lines of development for which the paradigmatic approaches provided broader points of reference. In the twenty-first century we share the same pressing issues and threats globally – and they need to be tackled together. In this article, our analysis was mainly restricted to European social pedagogy. An important next step would be to explore the development of social pedagogy in the Global South and to see what we could learn from there; for instance, from Indigenous thinking that has influenced social pedagogy in many countries.
Last, but not least, the role and possibilities of social pedagogy in addressing ecological crises should be considered. Critical social pedagogy has been criticised for stepping outside the pedagogical realm in trying to tackle structural issues (
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The authors declare no conflicts of interest. All efforts to sufficiently anonymise the authors during peer review of this article have been made. The authors declare no further conflicts with this article.