A phenomenological exploration of social pedagogy in immigrant education in the United States

Social pedagogy

Holistic teaching considers both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects, addressing a child’s ‘head, heart, and hand’ (Petrie and Moss, 2019; Rothuizen and Harbo, 2017). This holistic vision of education is powerfully illustrated in Rothuizen and Harbo’s (2017) parable of a boy and his beloved cap, which contrasts how different teacher responses reflect varying views on the individual’s role in society. One teacher notices the joy a cap brings to a young boy in school, recognising this small expression’s emotional and personal significance. Another teacher, focused on rule enforcement, removes the cap to uphold policy, dampening both the boy’s and the observing teacher’s moods. This moment exemplifies a core tension in education: the conflict between prioritising compliance and honouring student well-being and individuality. Social pedagogy emphasises this tension, encouraging educators to consider the emotional and social dimensions of learning, rather than simply enforcing behavioural conformity.

Social pedagogy blends theory and practice to shape relationships between individuals and society (Ryynänen and Nivala, 2017), combining social and educational theories (Eriksson, 2013; Hämäläinen and Úcar, 2016). Within the United States, it is rooted in critical theory and progressive education, examines the causes of social issues and advocates for reform using education to promote democracy. This tension between emotional responsiveness and institutional norms resonates deeply with the work of American reformer Jane Addams, whose contributions laid the groundwork for social pedagogy. Addams believed that education should not only cultivate cognitive skills but also address the social conditions that foster individual development and active citizenship (Hämäläinen, 2013, p. 7). While social pedagogy remains ‘underdeveloped’ in the United States (Fox and Thiessen, 2019, p. 1), it draws heavily from Addams’s work at Hull House, where she advocated for a culturally compassionate approach to educating immigrants. Shure (2024) identifies 11 dimensions of social pedagogy that can be seen in contemporary US schools, including critical reflection, student empowerment, cooperative learning and the exploration of cultural narratives.

Immigration

Issues surrounding immigration are political yet personal. Powerful political figures often decide the policies that govern the immigration process (Batalova and Mittelstadt, 2012; Kirksey, 2020). Also influential are federal immigration laws, state policy and institutional contexts (Gonzales, 2024). Their effects profoundly impact the physical, emotional, spiritual and mental well-being of those that they touch (Arbona et al., 2010; Artiga and Ubri, 2017; Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024). Policies change as societal responses change (Massey, 1995; Stephenson, 1926), and these responses are shaped by many factors (Carranza and Harris, 2025). Historically, as the number of immigrants rises from a given area, so does fear among US-born citizens towards that group (Schuck, 2018).

A study examining US newspaper articles addressing immigration over the past decade found that issues concerning immigration are often portrayed in a negative light and may create a negative connotation in the public’s eyes (Evans et al., 2025). While fear and rhetoric often influence public opinion, legal protections for immigrant children in the United States remain, ensuring their access to education regardless of immigration status.

The current laws affecting school practices are best understood in a historical context, but concisely put, all children residing within the United States are entitled to equal protection. This foundational right is currently under attack, but as of August 2025, it stands. Children cannot be denied an education regardless of birthplace, immigration status or language proficiency (Hernandez, 2013; Lau v. Nichols, 1974; Plyler v. Doe, 1982).

With the criminalisation of immigration in the 1990s (Macías-Rojas, 2018), many children and young adults found themselves at an impasse. There was no path to citizenship in the only country they knew. In response and through executive order, President Obama authorised the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) (Gonzales et al., 2014). DACA offers a means for lawful presence, though it is not a path to citizenship (Gonzales et al., 2014). This was contested during Donald Trump’s first term but was ultimately upheld. During Trump’s current term, within his first day of office, he ‘signed 10 executive orders on immigration, all of them limiting immigration or expanding enforcement’ (Chishti and Bush-Joseph, 2025). This emphasis on immigration enforcement is consistent with trends, as policy has been scaled up throughout the past three decades (Gonzales, 2024). The unknown future increases stress.

Fear of deportation is palpable among both documented and undocumented residents, exacerbating the emotional stress that they face (Arbona et al., 2010; Evans et al., 2025). One parent stated: ‘Uncomfortable and unstable; we feel that in any moment a new rule could be issued leading to expelling us and sending us back’ (Artiga and Ubri, 2017, p. 1). As of 2022, 89 per cent of children living in immigrant families were US citizens (Evans et al., 2025) and deeply affected by policies they do not control (Chaudry et al., 2010). These children typically receive 1.18 fewer years of education (Brabeck et al., 2014) and face more behavioural (Landale et al., 2015) and mental health (Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024) issues. Their access to supportive resources is more limited than that of the general population (Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024).

Children who once exhibited typical developmental behaviours now face challenges such as difficulty sleeping, eating and experiencing physical pain due to stress (Artiga and Ubri, 2017; Cavazos-Rehg et al., 2007; Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024). Around 7 per cent of first-generation Latino adolescents show signs of depression, and 29 per cent show signs of anxiety, with depression increasing in second- and third-generation immigrants (Potochnick and Perreira, 2010). These concerns are especially problematic for a population over 70 per cent uninsured (Brabeck et al., 2014). One such outcome is cultural dissociation, or children distancing themselves from their heritage to avoid being linked to undocumented status (Dreby, 2012), a protective response observed historically (Addams, 1902).

As a result of anxiety, families in diverse settings sometimes avoid institutions that can offer mitigating support (Gonzales, 2024). Adverse outcomes are likely to escalate, as people become aware of the realities of Trump’s policy (Human Rights Watch, 2025). News outlets are reporting that at least three US-citizen children have been deported along with their undocumented mothers, one with cancer and without her medical equipment or medicines (Kuchar, 2025). In addition, the current administration is challenging birthright citizenship. The ongoing political and social challenges that immigrant children face underscore the need for schools not only to provide academic support but also to foster environments that address these broader emotional, psychological and legal concerns.

Contemporary education of immigrant students

Despite persistent stereotypes, immigrant families are shown to deeply value education (Evans et al., 2025). However, the optimism that often marks the beginning of their journey can shift to discouragement over time (Nieto, 2004). Although educational supports exist (Evans et al., 2025), the system as a whole still falls short of preparing immigrant students to thrive in a democratic society. Many educators recognise these shortcomings, but the way forward remains uncertain, leaving many immigrant students vulnerable (Hernandez, 2013; Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024).

Schools across the nation adhere to what are known as ‘The Lau Remedies’, which are minimum requirements established by the Supreme Court, the highest court in the United States. These necessary practices include identifying language learners, assessing language ability, collecting data and implementing a results-driven programme (Lau v. Nichols, 1974). Van Ngo (2007) emphasises that such programmes foster academic achievement, English-language development and social integration. Considering that 25 per cent of students in the United States are part of an immigrant family (Evans et al., 2025), it is reasonable to prioritise this population.

Currently, schools in the United States seek to ‘educate all the children of all the people’ (Roberts and Willis, 1988, p. 1), yet students sometimes ‘find themselves in an invisible curriculum denied access to the sources of understanding they need’ (Fabbian and Zanotti Carney, 2018, p. 423). ‘If our public schools are to uphold the right to “free and appropriate education (FAPE)” … public schools must ensure that all students can access the educational curriculum, including providing an educational environment that positively supports immigrant students’ (Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2024, p. 40). Providing immigrant students with holistic schooling that validates their experiences and cultures while engaging them with their community can be considered through a social pedagogical lens.

Effective schools demonstrate authentic caring (Valenzuela, 2005), incorporate cultural diversity (Busey and Russell, 2016) and promote justice (Cammarota and Romero, 2006). They may support immigrant students by creating safe, supportive environments, such as designated spaces in case of raids (Chaudry et al., 2010) and often offer school-based mental-health services (Chaudry et al., 2010; Kataoka et al., 2003). Holistic approaches involve what Naiditch (2022) refers to as push/pull systems, in which students go out into the community and community resources come into the school. When these services are unavailable, involving church leaders or community advocates has proven beneficial (Chaudry et al., 2010; Ee and Gándara, 2019).

Findings

Four distinct themes appeared. Students establish stronger connections with teachers who demonstrate a willingness to provide clarity until an effective exchange is achieved. Additionally, students tend to conform to group consensus, a behaviour attributed to language barriers. As for principals’ perceptions, there is a clear consensus regarding the importance of teachers fostering healthy relationships with their students. Nevertheless, principals grapple with constraints such as a shortage of essential resources, including mental-health professionals and time.

Research question 1

In response to this research question, 408 data points were analysed. Two themes emerged concerning student perceptions: (a) students more readily build relationships with teachers who clarify until students understand; and (b) students desire to conform to the group consensus due to language barriers.

Research question 2

Findings showed that principals highly value healthy relationships between students and teachers, yet face roadblocks in taking holistic, student-centric approaches. There is a lack of mental-health professionals and time, hindering the implementation of social pedagogy.

Recommendations

Strong interpersonal relationships drive human behaviour (Baumeister and Leary, 1995) and help students grasp academic content and social nuances. Effective communication is essential for these relationships and requires a willingness to non-judgmentally clarify when needed. Without this, English learners may struggle to follow directions, causing a perception of defiance, leading to a cycle where the student is labelled disruptive, further hindering learning. Findings from this study reveal that students who felt teachers made an effort to clarify instructions were significantly more likely to report positive relationships with them, whereas those who felt ignored or misunderstood, like Participant S5, expressed frustration, further exacerbating the risk of being labelled disruptive. Such misunderstandings negatively impact student success (Manninen et al., 2019; Rothuizen and Harbo, 2017), and acculturative stress arises (Arbona et al., 2010). Tailored programmes exist to address this (see https://www.capturingkidshearts.org/), yet studies demonstrate little improvement (Rhea and Singh, 2020). The most vulnerable are often disproportionately affected, as was the case with the Alternative Learning Environment, which had no assigned mental-health provider.

The adverse effects can be viewed through the lens of social interactions shaping identity (Burke, 1996). Students internalise the roles assigned to them, influencing their self-perception. Data from participants such as S1, who struggled with language barriers and often conformed to group norms rather than voice their opinion, supports the theory that students’ identities are shaped by the roles they are assigned due to misunderstandings and societal pressures. Repeated misunderstandings can lead to students reshaping their own views about themselves and their roles in society. Social pedagogy, which positions students as active participants in their learning and communities (Petrie and Moss, 2019), fosters empowerment. As noted by Participant A4, teachers who create inclusive, relationship-centred classrooms see a positive impact on student engagement and learning, which further supports the role of social pedagogy in empowering students: ‘She has all the difficult students, and she has such a way. After they leave her room, they love to read these novels.’

Districts should train teachers in three key dimensions of social pedagogy: healthy relationships, problem posing and cooperative learning, emphasising critical analysis and reflection. In response to the findings, which highlighted that students valued teachers who could clarify and encourage participation, training should also focus on communication strategies that help teachers support students in overcoming language barriers, thus reducing the tendency to withdraw or conform. Training should begin with empowering student agency to ensure equal participation and should cover communication skills that lead to effective exchange between a teacher and their student. Because language barriers often lead immigrant students to withhold input in order to conform, training should address inclusive practices for English learners and encourage full participation.

Schools should reduce extra requirements as state and district guidelines allow, prioritise hiring mental-health professionals and offer incentives to fill these positions. The efficacy of school-based mental-health programmes has been well established for decades (Chaudry et al., 2010; Kataoka et al., 2003) and takes precedence over funding unproven programmes. The need for these services was echoed by several principals in this study, who expressed frustration at the lack of mental-health support and the strain that it placed on school resources. Immigrant students face higher rates of depression and anxiety, with some experiencing multiple forms of marginalisation, making mental-health services essential. These findings were mirrored in the experiences shared by students, like Participant S1, who reported feeling isolated and stressed.

The students in this study frequently spoke about their struggles with language barriers, and their desire for better English language support was a recurrent theme. In contrast, principals discussed the importance of overall student well-being but did not focus as much on the specific needs of English learners. Research on best practices for teaching English as second language remains mixed, partly due to inconsistent measures of programme effectiveness. National guidelines could help standardise content testing, English acquisition metrics and social-emotional assessments. However, the issue is cyclical in that federal recommendations require solid data, yet uniformity is required to gather solid data. A meta-analysis across states on language acquisition, content learning and social-emotional well-being could provide valuable insights.

Conclusion

This study examined immigrant students’ and principals’ views on social pedagogy, which blends social and educational theories and emphasises relationships as a key motivator in learning. Through 13 semi-structured interviews, findings revealed that students value teachers who persist in clarifying concepts, but they also tend to conform to group consensus due to language barriers. Principals stress the importance of positive teacher–student relationships but face challenges like limited time and mental-health support.

These findings align with prior research on immigrant student challenges and suggest the need for specialised educator training and increased school-based mental-health support. Ultimately, the story of the boy and his cap from earlier serves as a reminder. With a little creative licence, let us consider the story with a twist. Miguel wore his cap proudly, a symbol of his connection to his culture and his uncle who gave it to him before his journey to the United States. Unaware of any rule prohibiting hats, his focus was on navigating the lunch queue and blending in. One teacher saw his cap as a violation of school rules, demanding he remove it without conversation, singling Miguel out for negative reasons. Another teacher took a different approach, waiting until Miguel was fed before gently discussing US school norms regarding caps, while prioritising Miguel’s sense of belonging and safety. This interaction reflects the importance of relationship building and understanding, key themes in this study, where communication and empathy foster student engagement and success.

Research ethics statement

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Arkansas State University (#FY22-23-247). All data were anonymised and securely stored to protect participant confidentiality.

Consent for publication statement

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study, including school principals and the legal guardians of student participants. Assent was also obtained from the students themselves prior to data collection.

Conflicts of interest statement

The author declares that there is no conflicts of interest. All efforts to sufficiently anonymise the author during peer review of this article have been made. The author declares no further conflicts with this article.